Baroque Concerto
One of the most important instrumental genres in the Baroque period is the concerto. The name of the genre is an Italian word which is derived from the Latin word concertare, which essentially means “to contend or compete.” The essence of this genre is the idea of a competition or debate between instrumental groups, but could also be interpreted as a less contentious dialogue or conversation. There are two varieties of concerto in the Baroque: the solo concerto and the concerto grosso. The former, as you might imagine, features a single instrumental soloist in dialogue with the orchestra. The latter includes multiple instrumental soloists organized into a group. This group of soloists may engage in dialogue or competition with the orchestra or with each other. In a concerto grosso, the solo group is referred to as the concertino while the orchestra is referred to as the ripieno (the Italian word meaning full) or tutti (meaning everyone).
Antonio Vivaldi
One of the preeminent composers of concertos in the 18th century is Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741). Vivaldi was primarily a violinist and many of his concertos feature this instrument as the soloist; however, they also include solo instruments of many kinds from bowed strings to plucked strings to winds and more. Vivaldi’s concertos were immensely influential and helped to standardize the genre’s form. J.S. Bach studied Vivaldi’s concertos closely and incorporated some aspects of Vivaldi’s style into his own concertos.
By the 18th century, Baroque concertos typically have three separate movements organized by tempo: fast-slow-fast. These movements use a variety of forms, but the most common form in fast movements (1st or 3rd, usually) is ritornello form. This form is similar to a da capo aria form in terms of its use of a ritornello, a repeating orchestral section that returns throughout the form. Instead of a vocal soloist singing in between the ritornellos, there is an instrumental one instead. Usually, a ritornello can be broken down into smaller components of individual phrases. These phrases can be reordered and recombined, presented in different keys or modes. In a way, the phrases of a ritornello can be considered modular and composers of concertos would break them apart and put them back together in many different ways. Yet it is important to note that the orchestral ritornellos never change or move the key or mode. The soloist is the one who moves away from the tonic or home key to somewhere else. The ritornellos which appear throughout the form are always static. Take a look at this diagram of a hypothetical ritornello form.
Notice that the middle ritornellos are shorter than the opening one and the closing one, as the full ritornello is typically only heard at the beginning and end. In addition, there is a “there and back again” trajectory in terms of key, as the form begins and ends in the tonic or home key but journeys to other keys (or modes) in the middle. As an example, let’s look at the first movement of a Vivaldi concerto.
In 1716, Vivaldi published a set of concertos which he had composed a few years earlier in 1712–13. Published as his Opus 4 and subtitled “La stravaganza” (Extravagance or Eccentricity), this collection features twelve concertos for solo violin.
The instrumentation is just strings and basso continuo, while the soloist (here a single violin) is drawn from the orchestral string group. However, this is a solo concerto, not a concerto grosso. So the lone soloist is competing with the orchestra only, rather than also in dialogue with other soloists. We’ll look at the last concerto in this collection, No. 12. The first movement is fast in a triple meter and uses a relatively straightforward ritornello form. Follow along with the time stamps below and listen for the alternations of orchestral ritornello and solo sections.
Vivaldi, Violin Concerto in G major, Op. 4, No. 12, “La stravaganza” (1716)
Recording performed by The English Concert, Simon Standage (soloist), directed by Trevor Pinnock. [Listen on YouTube]
First Movement: Ritornello form, fast not but too fast. The ritornello will return throughout slightly differently. The soloist changes the key at various points and in solo 3 also changes the mode from major to minor. Listen for the return of melodies from the opening ritornello but also for how the orchestra and the soloist react to each other.
Opening ritornello: 0:00–0:28 (complete ritornello, ending with a cadence)
Solo 1: 0:28–0:43 (soloist and basso continuo only, no orchestra)
Ritornello 2: 0:43–0:52 (partial ritornello)
Solo 2: 0:52–1:21 (basso continuo drops out for a bit, soloist accompanied by orchestral violins)
Ritornello 3: 1:21–1:36 (slightly longer than ritornello 2, near complete)
Solo 3: 1:36–1:55 (soloist and basso continuo, starts to change mode from major to minor)
Ritornello 4: 1:55–2:14 (slightly longer, now in minor mode)
Solo 4: 2:14–2:28 (still in minor mode, but returns to original key)
Closing ritornello: 2:28–2:52 (near complete, returns to major mode)
Vivaldi’s Four Seasons
Probably the best known of Vivaldi’s works (and some of the best known today of all classical music) is his Opus 8 collection of concertos known as “The Four Seasons.” Vivaldi composed them around 1718–1720, and they were published in 1725 as part of a larger collection of twelve violin concertos called Il cimento dell’armonia e dell’inventione (The Contest Between Harmony and Invention).
These four concertos each represent a different season of the year and act as early examples of program music, that is music which represents some kind of image or narrative outside of the music. In this case, Vivaldi is musically representing the sounds of different seasons, which includes both nature and seasonal human activity. In order to make the program clear, he published alongside the concertos a series of poems (sonnets) which describe the scenes in each movement of each concerto. Scholars believe that the sonnets were likely written by Vivaldi himself, although this is not known for certain. They are somewhat amateurish by the standards of Italian poetry of the time, but still effective in communicating the program.
These concertos have been quoted and used in a variety of subsequent works throughout the centuries, reinforcing their enduring popularity. As early as 1726 (just a year after the publication of the Four Seasons), J.S. Bach used a theme from the first movement of the Spring concerto (Op. 8 No. 1) in an aria in his cantata, Wer weiß, wie nahe mir mein Ende? BWV 27 [Listen on YouTube). In more recent years, these pieces have been quoted or used in soundtracks for TV and film, as well as samples in pop music recordings. Some brief examples include The Piano Guys 2014 mashup of the Winter concerto with the song “Let It Go” from Frozen [Listen on YouTube], as well as rapper Lupe Fiasco’s 2015 album Tetsuo & Youth which samples all four concertos on tracks mixed with samples of sounds associated with those seasons (for instance, the sound of children playing in a pool or maybe at a beach for Summer, [Listen on YouTube]. Finally, the Winter concerto is played by the character Wednesday from the 2022 TV show of the same name in a version for solo cello [Listen on YouTube].
Our example will be from the second concerto (Op. 8, No. 2), which represents the season summer. We will listen to the third movement of the concerto, which is the fast and exciting conclusion to the concerto. But first, read through the whole sonnet below which outlines the program for all three movements of Summer.
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Allegro non molto Sotto dura Staggion dal Sole accesa Langue l’ huom, langue ’l gregge, ed arde il Pino; Scioglie il Cucco la Voce, e tosto intesa Canta la Tortorella e ’l gardelino. Zeffiro dolce Spira, mà contesa Muove Borea improviso al Suo vicino; E piange il Pastorel, perche sospesa Teme fiera borasca, e ’l suo destino; |
Allegro non molto Under a hard season, fired up by the sun Languishes man, languishes the flock and burns the pine We hear the cuckoo’s voice; then sweet songs of the turtledove and finch are heard. Soft breezes stir the air, but threatening the North Wind sweeps them suddenly aside. The shepherd trembles, fearing violent storms and his fate. |
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Adagio e piano – Presto e forte Toglie alle membra lasse il Suo riposo Il timore de’ Lampi, e tuoni fieri E de mosche, e mosconi il Stuol furioso! |
Adagio e piano – Presto e forte The fear of lightning and fierce thunder Robs his tired limbs of rest As gnats and flies buzz furiously around. |
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Presto Ah, che pur troppo i Suo timor Son veri Tuona e fulmina il Ciel e grandinoso Tronca il capo alle Spiche e a’ grani alteri. |
Presto Alas, his fears were justified The Heavens thunder and roar and with hail Cut the head off the wheat and damages the grain. |
The basic narrative of the sonnet is that the first movement represents a shepherd in the field during the heat but general calm of summer, with birdsong and soft breezes. But the North Wind comes in, and the shepherd senses a storm coming. In the slow movement, he fears the coming storm, while gnats and flies buzz around. Then the third movement (our example), the storm arrives, and the music represents the thunder and hail as it destroys the wheat in the field.
Follow along the listening guide below and try to connect Vivaldi’s music to the third part (ending) of the sonnet. In addition, I’ve outlined the key changes. You don’t need to be able to hear them precisely or know what key the piece is in, but this is just to help you track a sense of moving away from home and then back.
Antonio Vivaldi, Violin Concerto in G minor, Op. 8, No. 2 “Summer” (1725)
Recording performed by The Academy of Ancient Music, John Holloway (soloist), directed by Christopher Hogwood.
Opening ritornello: 0:00–0:48 (unison opening with fast repeated notes, then splits into different parts, G minor)
Solo 1: 0:48–1:07 (moves from G minor to D minor)
Ritornello 2: 1:07–1:28 (moves from D minor to C minor, a bit unusual for ritornello to change key)
Solo 2: 1:28–1:42 (C minor, solo violin is joined by a solo cello from the orchestra)
Ritornello 3: 1:42–1:56 (similar to ritornello 2, begins to head back to G minor)
Solo 3: 1:56–2:02 (holds onto D major chord, the dominant chord in G minor)
Ritornello 4: 2:02–2:10 (G minor, very similar to opening ritornello, but cut short)
Solo 4: 2:10–2:15 (similar to Solo 1 but stays in G minor)
Ritornello 5: 2:15–2:19 (very brief, G minor)
Solo 5: 2:19–2:24 (one last bit for the soloist in G minor)
Closing ritornello: 2:24–2:40 (very similar to opening ritornello but not exact repeat)
Bach’s Brandenburg Concertos
Now we will turn to an example of a concerto grosso. In this genre, it is not merely that the soloist is in dialogue (or competition) with the orchestra, but that there is a group of soloists which may be in dialogue with each other and/or with the orchestra. There are many more combinations available to the composer in this genre, which was incredibly popular in the Baroque period and eventually fell out of favor, leaving the solo concerto as the main surviving concerto genre in the Classical period and beyond.
Some of the best-known pieces in this genre come from a collection of six concertos composed by J.S. Bach, called the Brandenburg Concertos. These six concertos were composed as a set and dedicated to Christian Ludwig, the Margrave of Brandenburg, a nobleman with whom Bach may have been trying to get a job. While they were sent to the Margrave in completed form in 1721, they were likely composed earlier over a period of time. Some of the first movement of Concerto 1 was based on a cantata which Bach had composed in 1713, so the period of 1713–1721 seems most likely.
The manuscript copy sent to the Margrave is an interesting artifact in its own right. It contains a written dedication message which extols the Margrave’s generosity and good musical taste. While Bach does not directly ask for a job (that would be a major faux pas), it is possible that such a request is the subtext of this dedication. The title page to this manuscript is reproduced in this image.
This copy remained on the shelf of the Margrave’s library for years, untouched. It is possible that he never had the pieces performed. In any case, after his death in 1734, the manuscript score changed hands frequently from Bach’s pupil Johann Kirnberger to the Princess Anna Amalia of Prussia (herself a composer) and finally ended up in the Royal Library of Berlin (now the Berlin State Library). During World War II, an enterprising librarian was concerned that it might be destroyed in the frequent bombing that the Allies were attacking Berlin with. He took it on a train late at night heading for Prussia. But the train itself was bombed, and the librarian only barely escaped into the forest with the scores in hand. Eventually, they were returned to the Berlin State Library and remain there today. But the destruction of World War II nearly destroyed them.
Today, these concertos are some of the best-known Baroque pieces in any genre and certainly among the most popular orchestral pieces. Often, they are used as theme music. Our example below is from Concerto No. 2 in this set. The first movement was used on the Voyager Golden Record, the phonograph record attached to the Voyager deep space probes (1977) as a representation of human culture.
In addition, the same movement has been used as the theme music for the 1980s PBS TV series, Great Performances, while the third movement was used as the theme for William F. Buckley, Jr.’s political talk show, Firing Line, which ran from 1966–1999 (the 2018 reboot of this show with Margaret Hoover as host uses the first movement of Brandenburg 2 instead). In fact, the use of this piece as a theme was parodied slightly in a 2007 episode of The Office, in which Michael Scott (Steve Carell) gives a talk to Ryan Howard’s (B.J. Novak) business school class. The talk does not go well, but Michael uses Brandenburg 2 (itself the intro to a tape from The Great Courses) in his dramatic entrance. You can see this scene [Watch on YouTube]..
The Brandenburgs are quite varied; each concerto has a different group of soloists and therefore there are many different instrumental timbres among the soloists. Some have solo groups of different kinds of instruments (such as Concertos 1, 2, 4, and 5), while others have groups of the same kind of instrument (Concertos 3 and 6). See below for an outline of the six concertos and their respective solo groups.
| Key | Catalog Number | Concertino (solo group) | |
| Concerto No. 1 | F major | BWV 1046 | 2 horns, 2 oboes, bassoon, violino piccolo |
| Concerto No. 2 | F major | BWV 1047 | trumpet, recorder, oboe, violin |
| Concerto No. 3 | G major | BWV 1048 | 3 violins, 3 violas, 3 cellos |
| Concerto No. 4 | G major | BWV 1049 | 2 recorders, violin |
| Concerto No. 5 | D major | BWV 1050 | flute, violin, harpsichord |
| Concerto No. 6 | B-flat major | BWV 1051 | 2 violas, cello |
Our example will be the first movement of Concerto No. 2. In addition to the larger number of soloists, Bach’s concerto style is somewhat different from Vivaldi’s despite the stylistic influence from the Italian to the German composer. You’ll notice that the length of time of both Vivaldi’s concerto movement example above and this Bach example are more or less the same. But Bach’s piece much more frequently alternates between solo sections and orchestral ritornellos. In addition, Bach traverses many more keys than Vivaldi does and breaks down the ritornello into smaller components.
Finally, a key aspect of Bach’s melodic style in comparison to Vivaldi is that instead of a light tunefulness common to Italian music in this period, Bach uses a technique called Fortspinnung which loosely translates to “spinning out.” This means that he will often take a small motivic idea and “spin out” a whole long melody all based on this small musical idea. This results in melodies which are less tuneful and more continuous, fast rhythms based on an initial motive. You can hear this especially in the opening ritornello of the example below.
Listen to the first movement of No. 2 below. I’ve marked the time stamps for each section as in the Vivaldi example and outlined the key changes. Again, you do not need to be able to hear them. Just follow the sense of moving away from and back to home.
Johann Sebastian Bach, Brandenburg Concerto No. 2 (by 1721)
Recording performed by the Freiburger Barockorchester. [Listen on YouTube]
- Opening ritornello: 0:00–0:18 (F major)
- Solo 1: 0:18–0:53 (moves from F major to C major, includes brief interjections of ritornello from the orchestra)
- Ritornello 2: 0:53–1:06 (C major)
- Solo 2: 1:06–1:13 (mostly trumpet)
- Ritornello 3: 1:13–1:16 (D minor)
- Solo 3: 1:16–1:24 (dialogue between oboe and trumpet)
- Ritornello 4: 1:24–1:32 (still D minor)
- Solo 4: 1:32–1:52 (moves through multiple keys heading back to F major)
- Ritornello 5: 1:53–1:58 (very brief, F major, but this is a false return to home)
- Solo 5: 1:58–2:16 (starts in F major, but then moves away through multiple keys to B flat major)
- Ritornello 6: 2:16–2:20 (very brief, B flat major)
- Solo 6: 2:20–2:40 (still unstable in terms of key, ends in C minor)
- Ritornello 7: 2:40–2:50 (C minor)
- Solo 7: 2:50–2:57 (very short, moves to G minor)
- Ritornello 8: 2:57–3:02 (G minor)
- Solo 8: 3:02–3:09 (dialogue between trumpet and oboe again)
- Ritornello 9: 3:09–3:18 (very brief, still in G minor)
- Solo 9: 3:18–3:42 (moves from G minor through D minor to A minor)
- Ritornello 10: 3:42–3:47 (A minor, very short)
- Solo 10: 3:47–4:03 (ends with cadence in A minor)
- Ritornello 9: 4:03–4:49 (F major, more or less complete but not an exact repetition of the opening ritornello)
Discussion Questions
- How do the solo concerto and concerto grosso compare in terms of the focus on one soloist versus the interaction among a group of soloists?
- Compare and contrast Vivaldi and Bach’s styles in these concertos. How are they similar or different in sound, in melody, in texture?
- Does the presence of an explicit narrative program in Vivaldi’s Four Seasons change how you react to a concerto movement, in comparison with the other examples?
